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The
classical traditions of all regions derive their basic inspiration from
the sage Bharat's analysis and his treatise on the aesthetics of dance
and dramaturgy, the Natya Shastra. Literally meaning the text of
drama, it is the oldest surviving text on stagecraft in the world; a
text, which spins together dance and drama in musical narration. Love,
Humour, Pathos, Anger, Heroism, Terror, Disgust, Wonder and Serenity are
the Nava Rasas or nine basic emotions, which are fundamental to
all dance and music forms.
The basis
for Indian music is found in the Sanskrit word Sangeet, which
means music. It is a combination of three art forms: geet (song),
vadya (instrumental music) and nritya (dance). In the old
days of the theatre, the dancers would mime the story while the singers
would sing the dialogue. The instrumentalists would accompany them all.
The nature of the old theatre was such that the dancers occupied a
central position. Today these three art forms have differentiated into
complex and highly refined individual arts.
Nritya
(dance) is closely linked to the Natya (theatre). The dancer must
express himself with his entire body: every movement is practiced for
hours on end and must be under perfect control - whether it is the
lifting of an eyebrow or a finger. The pantomime expressed by the hands
(mudras) together with the expression of the face (abhinaya),
allow the full development of the nine emotions.
India also
has a wealth of folk dances and songs, closely interwoven with the lives
of the people. Almost all age groups participate. The tempo varies from
the slow and languorous movements of the tribal and hill regions to the
staccato movements of the Mizo bamboo dance, to the boisterous leaps of
the robust peasants of Punjab, the splendour of the colourful whirling
skirts of Rajasthan, to the disciplined and virile movements of the
Nagas. Folk songs are sung on almost all occasions but, broadly
speaking, the themes are occupational or connected with ceremonies,
festivals and the change of seasons. Ballads are more often about tales
of heroism and romance.
The Guru
(teacher) has a special place in the performing world in India. He is
next to parents in the hierarchy where God finds the last place. The
pupils do not call the Gurus by their name and accidental call invite a
spontaneous gesture of touching the ears.
The understanding of the
complex and exciting field of Sangeet easily consumes an entire
lifetime.
DANCE
MUSIC
CLASSICAL DANCE
The Indian
classical dance forms are a beautiful compilation of the Mudras
and Abhinaya. The present classical
dance forms, however, are not as old as the Natya Shastra. These
dance forms evolved around early 15th to 18th century AD when some
people worked to revive the dying art. For many centuries the dancers
were attached to the temples. This maintained a strong religious flavour
to dance. Even today many of the traditional themes are mythological in
nature. Over the centuries different areas have given their own colour
to the ancient classical tradition.
Each of
these styles have a strong regional connection and none can claim to be
representative of the entire Indian subcontinent. These dances when
revived were performed in temples as a tribute to the deity. Dancers
were carefully selected after years of practice. These were performed
during the daily morning and evening prayer ceremonies and on special
festivals. It was only in the pre independent India that these forms got
their present status.
All the
major dance forms have some features in common. Before every performance
there are certain stage rites. As all the dances are more or less
devotional, the very first rite is to offer prayers to the deity. The
stage is not considered just a platform where one performs, it is
considered to be sacred and draws special attention of the performer.
Every performance has a Sutradhar or a narrator who narrates the
epic extract. Sangat (company) is given by musicians and the type
of music depends on the type of dance form. In the south Indian dance
forms Carnatic style of music is followed to recite the epics.
Today the acknowledged
classical dance styles are:
- Bharatnatyam of Tamil
Nadu
- Kathak of North India
- Kathakali of Kerala
- Kuchipudi of Andhra
Pradesh
- Manipuri of Northeast
India
- Mohiniyattam of Kerala
- Odissi of Orissa
BHARATNATYAM
The most celebrated art form of the Southern Indian State
of Tamil Nadu, Bharatnatyam is a dynamic and earthy dance style. It is,
in effect, a tradition that demands of the performer - total dedication,
detachment from worldly ties and a sublimation of self to the art.
Bharatnatyam is a relatively new name. It was earlier known as Sadir,
Dasi attam, and Thanjavur Natyam. The contemporary form of Bharatnatyam
evolved during the late 18th or early 19th century. Sadir, which was
till then the domain of devadasis (girls who were dedicated to
gods), reached its nadir during 1910-1930 with the degeneration of
social mores. But during 1926-35, under the championship of E. Krishna
Iyer, the dance regained its majesty and came to be known as
Bharatnatyam.
Bharatnatyam dancers are usually women and, like the sculptures they
take their positions from, always dance bent-kneed. It is an extremely
precise dance style where a huge repertoire of hand movements is used to
convey moods and expressions. Bharatnatyam is vibrant and very demanding
of the dancer. The body is visualized as made of triangles, one above
and one below the torso. It is based upon a balanced distribution of
body weight and firm positions of the lower limbs, allowing the hands to
cut into a line, to flow around the body, or to take positions that
enhance the basic form. A special feature of this dance form is
Padams or poems on the hero-heroine theme. The tempo of these love
songs is slow and each phase of the performance is crystallized into a
specific mood of love
KATHAK
The Kathak dance form traces its origins to the nomadic bards of ancient
northern India, known as Kathaks or storytellers. These bards,
performing in village squares and temple courtyards, mostly specialized
in recounting mythological and moral tales from the scriptures and
embellished their recitals with hand gestures and facial expressions. It
was quintessential theatre, using instrumental and vocal music along
with stylized gestures to enliven the stories. It underwent a paradigm
change with Muslim and Persian influence transforming from a temple
ritual to a courtly entertainment. With the advent of Mughal culture,
Kathak became a sophisticated chamber art. Patronized by art loving
rulers, the practitioners of Kathak worked at refining its dramatic and
rhythmic aspects, delighting elite audiences with their mastery over
rhythm and the stylized mime. This dance form has a distinct
Hindu-Muslim texture.
The dance
is performed straight-legged and more stress is laid on footwork. A bell
string is tied around the ankles of both the legs and then starts a
synchronized movement of hands and feet with complimentary jingling of
the ankle bells. Kathak has an exciting and entertaining quality with
intricate footwork and rapid pirouettes set to complex time cycles. The
costumes and themes of these dances are often similar to those in Mughal
miniature paintings. Though not similar to the Natya Shastra, the
principles in Kathak are essentially the same. The footwork is matched
by the accompanying percussion instruments such as Tabla and
Pakhawaj and the dancer and percussionists often indulge in a
virtuoso display of rhythmic wizardry.
KATHAKALI
Kathakali is a rich and flourishing tradition of dance drama of the
State of Kerala. It is a well-developed dance drama performance where
the actors depict characters from the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata and
from the Puranas (the ancient scriptures). Present day Kathakali is a
dance drama tradition, which evolved from centuries of highly, stylized
theatrical traditions of Kerala, especially Kudiyattam. Ritual
traditions like Theyyams, Mudiyattam and the martial arts of Kerala
played a major role in shaping the dance into its present form. Like
Bharatnatyam, Kathakali also needed a resurrection in the 1930s. The
great poet Vallathol rediscovered Kathakali, establishing the Kerala
Kalamandalam in 1932, which lent a new dimension to the art form.
The
dancers, usually men, adorn themselves in huge skirts, elaborate masks,
costumes and headdress, wearing a most intricate style of make-up. The
most characteristic feature of the dance form is the painted face of the
dancers. Choice of colours is made according to the quality of the
character portrayed; different colours depict properties like wickedness
and soberness. Kathakali recitals are generally long and while other
dance forms are more emotive than narrative, Kathakali is both. It
combines dance with dialogue to bring myth and legend to life in the
temple courtyards of Kerala. The dancers use their stunning costumes and
make-up, with the accompaniment of drums and vocalists, to create
various moods and emotions. So strong is the identification of the
dancers with the characters they play and so absolute their conviction,
that they seem to surpass themselves, becoming one with the legendary
heroes and heroines they depict.
KUCHIPUDI
Kuchipudi, the indigenous style of dance of Andhra Pradesh took its
birth and effloresced in the village of the same name, originally called
Kuchelapuri or Kuchelapuram, a hamlet in Krishna district. From its
origin, as far back as the 3rd century BC, it has remained a continuous
and living dance tradition of this region. The genesis of Kuchipudi art
as of most Indian classical dances is associated with religions. For a
long time, the art was presented only at temples and that too only for
annual festivals of certain temples in Andhra. According to tradition,
only men originally performed this dance and they all belonged to the
Brahmin community. Their programs were offerings to the deities and they
never allowed women in their groups. In an era of the degeneration of
dance due to exploitation of female dancers, an ascetic, Siddhendra Yogi
redefined the dance form. In the late 18th century women were introduced
and the dance form got refined.
The
transition has been great from a time when men played female parts to
the present when women play even the male parts. The most popular
Kuchipudi dance is the pot dance in which a dancer keeps a pot filled
with water on her head and feet kept on a brass plate. She moves on the
stage manipulating the brass plate, with the feet kept on its rim and
doing some hand movements without spilling a drop of water on the ground
thus astounding the audience. The make up and costumes are
characteristic of the art. There is nothing elaborate in the costumes
and the makeup is not so heavy. The important characters have different
make up and the female characters wear ornaments and jewellery and a
long plait decorated with flowers. Today Kuchipudi has undergone many
changes. The present day dancers having advanced training in this style,
present this art in their own various individual ways.
MANIPURI
The remote northeast corner of India has one of the most graceful dances
of the subcontinent. It takes its name from the State of Manipur, which
is situated in a secluded and picturesque valley enclosed by mountain
ranges. The legend goes that the gods drained a lake in the beautiful
countryside in order to find a place to dance. No wonder then, that
dance is inextricably woven into the lives of the people and is an
inherent part of the rituals of daily life such as weddings and homage
to ancestors. The Lai Haroba, a ritualistic dance depicting the
Creation, is considered the precursor of present Manipuri. The Lai
Haroba is still an important living tradition, while Manipuri has
expanded and gained popularity as a performing art in a group and solo
presentations. Performed still in temples and religious occasions, of
Manipur, this dance form is a very much living tradition.
This style
is multifaceted, ranging from the softest feminine to the obviously
vigorous masculine. The women perform the dance with slow graceful
movements and undulating arm gestures. In its gentle, ritualistic and
restrained performance there is evidence of affinity with the dance of
South East Asia. On the contrary the form practiced by men, known as
Sankirtana, is performed with traditional Manipuri drums and
vigorous movements. Among the important constituents of the Manipuri
repertoire are the Sankirtana and the Raas Leela, based on
the devotional theme of Krishna and Radha. The Raas Leela depicts the
cosmic dance of Krishna and the gopis (village belles). The
beautiful embroidered skirts of the dancers, long and flared from the
waist, and the translucent veils, along with Krishna's costume with the
tall peacock feather crown, add to the radiant appearance of this dance,
as the performers sway and twirl to an ascending tempo. Another vibrant
feature of Manipuri is the Pung Cholam or Drum dance, in which
dancers play on the drum known as Pung while dancing with
thrilling leaps and turns to a fast rhythm. Dignified grace is to be
found in every aspect and the range it offers in technique, rhythm and
tempo makes a Manipuri recital an absorbing and exhilarating experience.
MOHINIYATTAM
Mohiniyattam is the female semi-classical dance form of Kerala.
Literally, the dance of the enchantress, Mohiniyattam was mainly
performed in the temple precincts of Kerala. It is also the heir to the
devadasi (girls who were dedicated to gods) dance heritage like
Bharatnatyam. The word 'Mohini' means a maiden who exerts desire
or steals the heart of the onlooker. The first historical reference to
Mohiniyattam is found in 'Vyavaharamala' composed by
Mazhamangalam Narayanan Namboodiri, assigned to the 16th century AD. In
the 19th century, Swati Thirunal, the king of erstwhile Travancore, did
much to encourage and stabilize this art form. The post Swati period
however witnessed the downfall of this art form. It somehow degenerated
into eroticism to satisfy the Epicurean life of some provincial satraps
and landlords. It was Poet Vallathol who again revived it and gave it a
status in modern times through Kerala Kalamandalam, which he founded in
1930.
The theme
of Mohiniyattam is love and devotion to god. Vishnu or Krishna is more
often the hero. The spectators could feel his invisible presence when
the heroine or her maid details dreams and ambitions through the
circular movements, delicate footsteps and subtle expressions. It is
essentially a solo dance, but in present times it is performed in a
group as well. Mohiniyattam maintains a realistic makeup and simple
dressing. The dancer is attired in a beautiful white and gold-bordered
sari. The style of vocal music for Mohiniyattam, is classical Carnatic.
ODISSI
Odissi is considered to be one of the oldest surviving dance forms based
on archaeological
evidence. The traditional dance form of Orissa, it owes its origin to
the temple dances of the devadasi (girls who were dedicated to
gods). Possibly, the oldest classical dance form in the country, Odissi
has been mentioned in inscriptions, depicted on sculptures, in temples
like the dancing hall of the Sun Temple at Konark. In the 1950s, the
entire dance form was revitalized, thanks to the Abhinaya Chandrika
and sculpted dance poses found in temples. Odissi as we know it today is
the result of a long process of reconstruction from various dance
traditions of Orissa, for instance the Maharis and the Goti
puas. Maharis are the counterparts of the devadasis of the
South. Goti puas are men who dressed as female dancers and danced
like the Maharis. These artistes are not allowed to dance in temples
after the age of 18.
While the
form is curvaceous, concentrating on the tribhang or the division
of the body into three parts, head, bust and torso; the Mudras
and the expressions are similar to those of Bharatnatyam. Odissi is
based on the popular devotion to Lord Krishna and the verses of the
Sanskrit play Geet Govind are used to depict the love and
devotion to God in soft flowing movements to express specific moods and
emotions. It is a soft, lyrical classical dance, which depicts the
ambience of Orissa and the philosophy of its most popular deity, Lord
Jagannath.
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FOLK DANCES
There is really no such thing as folk dancing. Rather, there is a large
body of unrelated non-classical dance forms. The only thing common among
these dance forms is their rural origins. Many folk dances are performed
by ordinary people rather than professional dancers. It is very usual
that on special occasions the villagers will gather and sing and dance,
accompanying themselves on a variety of folk instruments. Such special
occasions include harvesting, planting, marriages and religious
holidays. There is also the institution of folk theatre. Professional
musicians, actors and dancers travel from village to village performing
their dance dramas. This was a rural extension of the ancient theatrical
tradition found in the Natya Shastra. However, it appears to have
degenerated into a rural tradition. One example of the folk theatre is
the Yaksha Gana of Karnataka.
It would be
more correct to divide folk dances into two categories: folk and tribal.
The difference between the two is cultural. Folk dances are the rural
extensions of the larger Indian population. Examples are the Bhangra
of Punjab and the Garba of Gujarat. However, the tribal dances
are performed by India's aboriginal populations. These people, known as
Adivasi, have a culture, which is very distinct from the larger
Indian population. Attempting to relate Indian tribal dances with Indian
folk dances is very much like trying to relate the dances of the
Cherokee Indians to the "Cotton Eyed Joe". A common example of a tribal
dance is the Santhali of Bihar. It may be academically desirable
to separate tribal from simple folk dances, however this is generally
not done. Artists do not concern themselves with these academic matters.
Therefore the following list does not make any distinctions.
Some of the popular folk
and tribal dances are:
Bhangra
- is a folk dance from the Northwest Indian State of Punjab. It is a
lively, powerful dance performed by men in celebration of the harvest
season.
Bihu
- is a folk dance from Assam. It is a very brisk and aggressive dance
performed by both boys and girls on occasions like harvest and wedding
ceremonies.
Changu
- the folk dance found in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh derives its name
from the changu, which is a simple tambourine that is used to accompany
this dance.
Garba
- is a folk dance from
Gujarat. It is traditionally danced at marriages and during the festival
of Navaratri (October/November).
Ghoomar
- is a folk dance of Rajasthan performed by women. It derives its name
from its characteristic pirouettes and swirling skirts.
Ghanta Patua
- is a folk dance of Orissa. Its name is derived from the large brass
gongs known as ghanta. It is performed in the Hindu month of
Chaitra. This dance is most notable because it is performed on
stilts
Kavadi
- is a folk dance of Tamil Nadu. It is played with a wooden pole upon
which are tied two pots. The stick is then balanced upon the shoulder.
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CLASSICAL MUSIC
The music of India is one of the oldest unbroken musical traditions in
the world. Indian music is not written and cannot be learnt from books.
Traditions of music have been handed down by teachers in a special
guru-shishya (master-disciple) relationship. It has developed within
a very complex interaction between different peoples of different races
and cultures. Aspects of musical from such as tonal intervals, harmonies
and rhythmical patterns are the unique products of a wealth of musical
traditions and influences; they are also very different from that
familiar in the west. Much of the music recalls Indian fables and
legends, as well as celebrating the seasonal rhythms of nature.
Music,
according to Hindu mythology, originated with the first sound ever to be
heard in the universe, the Naadbrahma or Om, which is the
purest sound to be heard. It is this purity that the musician attempts
to achieve in his sadhana (dedicated pursuit) of the music he is
involved in. Where Indian cultural history is concerned, classical music
claims the Vedic chants as its source that dates back to approximately
5000 to 4000 BC. These are arguably the earliest written documents to
have emerged from the Indian subcontinent. The Vedic chants themselves,
though, would date back even further. Research indicates that the
Samveda (one of the four Vedas) had a rather complicated way of
chanting that used more than just three notes as in the case of the
other Vedas. Also, it has been found that a rather definite scale of
svaras (notes) had been arrived at by scholars of the Vedic period.
As the
centuries faded into one another and civilizations rose and fell, the
writings of the Vedas endured. The advent of Muslims brought with them
the influence of the Persian form of music and this introduced
flexibility and a certain lightness to the classical music. Musicians
from various states were constantly improving their gayaki
(styles) and were continuously innovating and studying deeper aspects of
music. Mughal Emperor Akbar's reign also saw the master of Indian music
Tansen perform in the royal court. Tansen is also credited with
composing many new ragas (music compositions).
During the
20th century with the growing struggle for Independence, the field of
classical Indian music reached a point of rest. With the patronage of
the noblemen and royals gone, very few Indian classical artistes
survived. Interest seemed to fade and classical music became the
prerogative of the intellectuals. In the post independent India,
however, music evolved to new dimensions. With cinema becoming popular,
film music became more popular than the classical forms. One of the
reasons for this was the simple nature of film music, though it
incorporated the essence of classical music yet it was simpler to the
ears.
Today there
are two major traditions of Indian classical music: Hindustani in
the north and Carnatic in the south. Both systems are
fundamentally similar but differ in nomenclature and performance
practice. Within this field of classical music, it was a different kind
of development that started taking place in the 1960s with Pandit Ravi
Shankar taking classical music out of the country to audiences' abroad.
He was also the first to experiment with mixing western music with the
Indian classical form to arrive at what is called fusion or world music,
a genre that is exceedingly popular today. The Indian classical music
tradition, however, has by no means faded. There are still teachers and
disciples all over the country that dedicate a major part of their lives
to the pursuit of this art, the sadhana of shastriya
(classical) sangeet (music).
The present
system of Indian Classical Music is based upon two important pillars:
Raga and Taal. Raga is the melodic form while Taal
is the rhythmic. Raga may be roughly equated with the Western
term mode or scale. There is a system of seven notes, which are arranged
in a means not unlike Western scales. However when we look closely we
see that it is quite different what we are familiar with. The Taal
forms are also very complex. Many common rhythmic patterns exist and
they revolve around repeating patterns of beats. The interpretation of
the Raga and the Taal is not the same all over India.
The Indian
classical music has two forms, gayaki (vocal) and vadya
(instrumental). In both Hindustani and Carnatic music, songs are usually
(although not always) preceded by an improvised unmeasured prelude (alaap)
which is sometimes extensive. This is followed by the "composition
section" in which a specific Taal is used. Although it is usually
based upon a pre-existing composition, there are specific
improvisational features to this section as well. This complicated
system of Taals and Ragas lead to the melody that forms
the basis of any type of music in India.
Vadya
Sangeet (instrumental music) occupies an important position in
Indian music. There is a general tendency for the instrumental styles to
follow quite closely the vocal styles. Yet, the degree to which an
instrument follows is primarily linked to the dynamics of the
instrument. Dynamics is the nature of the loudness of an instrument.
This is not intended to mean loudness in the usual interpretation, but
rather the amplitudinal characteristics of the instrument.
Many
musical instruments are peculiar to India. There is a traditional system
for the classification of instruments but there are three main types:
string instruments, wind blown and beat (percussion) instruments.
Sitar, Tanpura, Violin, Veena, Sarangi are the
various string instruments. Bansuri (flute), Shehnai,
Harmonium are the wind blown instruments. Tabla, Dholak,
Mridangam, Pakhawaj are the popular percussion
instruments. These instruments have evolved to their present form after
a long period of transitional instruments. Indian music has absorbed a
lot form other countries also. The well-known instrument Sarod is
a modified version of Rabab, which is essentially a Persian
instrument. The contemporary Indian music is now experimenting with
western instruments like guitar and piano.
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FOLK MUSIC
India has a very rich tradition of folk music. The extreme cultural
diversity creates endless varieties of folk styles. Each region has its
own particular style. There is a tendency to lump folk music along with
tribal music. There is actually a difference. Where folk music is a mere
rustic reflection of the larger Indian society, tribal music often
represents cultures that are very different. Some of these tribal
cultures are throwbacks to cultural conditions as they were thousands of
years ago.
Folk and
tribal music is not taught in the same way that Indian classical music
is taught. There is no formal period of apprenticeship where the student
is able to devote their entire life to learning the music, the economics
of rural life does not permit this sort of thing. The musical
practitioners must still attend to their normal duties of hunting,
agriculture or whatever their chosen profession is. Music in the
villages is learned almost by osmosis. From childhood the music is heard
and imbibed along with ones mother's milk. There are numerous public
activities that allow the villagers to practice and hone their skills.
Music is an indispensable component of functions such as weddings,
engagements, and births. There is a plethora of songs for such
occasions. There are also many songs associated with planting and
harvesting. In these activities the villagers routinely sing of their
hopes, fears and aspirations.
Folk music
is also used for educational purposes. For instance sex education has
traditionally been taught in Andhra Pradesh by song. There is a function
when a girl has her first menses. In this function the elderly women in
the community gather at the house (men are definitely excluded), the
girl is given her first woni and langa (half sari
which is worn by unmarried girls), rich food and other gifts. During
this function the women sing songs that are extremely bawdy. To an
outsider this would seem uncharacteristic of obviously respectable
community members. However the function of such songs is to provide the
girl's first instructions on her emerging womanhood and what her future
marital duties will be.
Musical instruments are
often different from those found in classical music. The instruments
that folk musicians use are generally not as refined as the classical
musicians' use. The instruments of classical music are crafted by
artisans whose only job is the fabrication of musical instruments. In
contrast the folk instruments are commonly crafted by the musicians
themselves. It is very common to find folk instruments that have been
fabricated of commonly available materials. Skin, peritoneum, bamboo,
coconut shells and pots are but a few common materials used to make
musical instruments
Although
instruments like the Tabla may sometimes be found it is more
likely that cruder drums such as Daf, Dholak, or Nal
will be used. The Sitar and Sarod which are so common in
the classical genre, are absent in folk music. One often finds
instruments such as the Ektar, Dotar, Saringda, Rabab and
Santoor. Quite often they will not even be called these names, but
may be named according to their local dialect. There are also
instruments, which are used only in particular folk styles in particular
regions and these instruments are innumerable. |
